İzmir

İzmir from the End of the Byzantine Era to the Times of the Turkish Republic (XIV-XX Centuries)
İzmir as a city and a harbour on the western Anatolian coast was established with a great advantage of geographical conditions given by the grace of nature and has preserved its strategic position since, hosting various cultures and political powers in the course of history. The city of İzmir was dominated for a short time by Çaka Bey who founded a Turkish Princedom (1081-96) by the end of the 11th century in this area with izmir as the main base for his sound influence in the Aegean Sea. However, the city came under Byzantine rule in the following decades.

After a period of darkness, İzmir was conquered by the Genoese Lords of Phokea (Foça). The Byzantine Emperor Mikhail Palailogos (1259-82) who had to accept this fact, transferred all his rights in lzmir to the Genoese by the Treaty of Nif in 1261 and İzmir became a Genoese Trade Colony. Turkish Warlord Aydınoğlu Mehmet Bey (1308-34), who conquered the inner parts of the city and the fortress of Kadifekale (as it is known today) was able to prevent the Byzantine rule in these lands, but was not victorious in capturing the fortress of the harbour. Thus, a dual situation was created in İzmir, causing the city to be known as “Infidel İzmir” and “Muslim İzmir”. lzmir became a city inhabited by two societies, each under the security of their own fortifications, each opposed to the other. This situation continued until 1329 when Umur Bey from the Aydınoğlu dynasty took the harbour fortress from the Genoese and the Turks began to rule the both parts of the city.

Umur Bey, who now boasted a strong harbour fortress and a shipyard, would now successfully carry on with the policy of extending his power over the Aegean Sea. The Christian forces formed a Crusader’s Fleet with the objective of confronting the Turkish threat in the Aegean Sea under the leadership of Umur Bey and of conquering the Harbour Fortress and the Inner Harbour that were the main bases of his operations. This force attacked İzmir in September 1334 and devastated the city. They had to withdraw, however. Ten years after this incident, a fleet sent by a Christian coalition formed under the leadership of Pope Clement VI (1342-52), was able to conquer the lower parts of İzmir, with the exception of the Kadifekale Fortress, on 28 October 1344 and became the masters of the Harbour Fortress and the Inner Harbour.

The Period of Two Societies in İzmir, 1344-1402
The Crusaders with the leading force of Venice, continuing their political presence until 1402, built new towers and fortifications to defend the harbour fortress and the people of “Infidel İzmir” as well as their commercial interests from the military operations of the Turks that would continue until the death of Umur Bey. They built a deep trench around the harbour fortress and filling this with sea water, they created an island. During this period, lower İzmir as a harbour city was surrounded by a city wall to ensure the security of its Christian people from attack by the Turks who held the Kadifekale fortifications.

Hızır Bey, who headed the Aydınoğlu Princedom after Umur Bey, could see the difficulty of winning the war against lower İzmir accepted the status quo and signed a treaty on August 18, 1348 with the Latins that gave them certain privileges. However this treaty was short-lived when the commercial importance of İzmir shifted to the ports of Ayasuluk (Altoluogo) and Balat (Palatia) and İzmir largely lost its features of a commercial centre. All the roads to İzmir were under the control of the Turks and the sea routes under the control of the Latin, bringing the traffic of commercial goods through İzmir in both directions to a halt. This resulted in a commercial and economic standstill in the city.

The Christian coalition formed in 1351 on the initiative of the Pope was disassembled in 1351 due to internal disorder but İzmir remained under the control of the Papal Authority till 1384. Later, Pope Gregory XI (1370-78) handed “Infidel İzmir” together with the harbour fortress over to the St. Jean Order of Knights who had become interested in this strategic post.

Ottoman Sultan Bayazıd (1389-1402) who headed the Turkish Unification of Anatolia started a campaign to control Western Anatolia, conquering the Muslim section of the City, as well as adding the Princedom of Aydın, Saruhan, Menteşe and Germiyan to the Ottoman territory, but the harbour fortress of İzmir and the lower section of the City, which were continuously supported by the Latin from the sea, remained in the hands of the representatives of the western culture for more than fifty years (1344-1402).

Emperor Lord Timur (Tamberlane-the Earth Shaker), in the course of his victory at the battle of Ankara in 1402, learned that İzmir was still in the hands of the St. Jean Order of Knights, proposed that the commanding knight convert to Islam and pay a ransom henceforth. Upon refusal of this, he decided to campaign towards İzmir and put an end to the existence of the Christian forces there. After a short siege in December 1402, Timur conquered the harbour fortress and lower İzmir, cleansing from them elements of foreign culture. Timur, who had finally united an İzmir that had been divided among two different forces for more than half a century, awarded the city to the Princedom of Aydınoğlu.

Period of Cüneyd Bey in İzmir
Cüneyd Bey, the grandson of the founder of the Aydınoğlu Dynasty, is an interesting figure of the respective period. Following the death of his brother and governor of İzmir, Musa Bey in 1403, Cüneyd Bey became engaged in a power struggle for the Princedom with his opponent Umur II. His previous activities are unknown. In the course of the struggle between the sons of Bayazıd I, for ruler ship of the Ottoman State with during the period of decline, Cüneyd Bey sided with the Crown Prince (Emir) Süleyman and with his support, became master over İzmir and conquered Ayasuluk (Selçuk) which was the capital town of the Princedom. Following the death of his opponent Umur II in 1405 he became the only ruler of the Aydınoğlu Dynasty. Cüneyd Bey was also known in history by the name İzmiroğlu (son of İzmir).

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I (1413-21) turned his attention to İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey, who followed a policy of expansion in Western Anatolia. His main objective was to regain the ground, once conquered by his father for the Ottoman Empire and lost in the aftermath of 1402, and to restore the Ottoman Authority in this region.

Cüneyd Bey pursued a policy independent of the Ottomans and the fact that he was supported by the Princedom of Karaman increased its significance. In fact, both of the princedoms followed an expansion policy at the disadvantage of the Ottoman State.

Mehmed eager to eliminate the negative effects of the period of decline and to unite Anatolia as his father had done, waged a campaign against Cüneyd Bey in 1414 to take control of the Princedom of Aydınoğlu. İzmir was conquered within a short period and according to Turkish sources, the Sultan granted Cüneyd Bey amnesty with certain conditions. Cüneyd Bey was sent to the Ottoman territories in the Balkans as the Governor of Niğbolu and the rule of İzmir was awarded to the converted-Muslim son of the Bulgarian King, formerly named Alexander Sisman. Cüneyd Bey later found an opportunity to return and in 1422 regained rule of his home city. In order to restore Ottoman authority Sultan Murad II and his army advanced in 1424. The Sultan personally marched on Izmir capturing Cüneyd Bey and executing him in 1426 together with all other members of his family.

Due to the struggle between the Ottoman State and Cüneyd Bey in the first quarter of XV century and the absence of authority in Western Anatolia, the harbour of İzmir and its hinterland were in a state of devastation when they became Ottoman territories. Such a region with vast agricultural resources and in continuous connection with the sea routes could not remain in that low state for much longer. Parallel to the restoration of Ottoman authority in this region, economic and commercial development was under way. On the other hand, the present rule of the Republic of Venice over the seas of Levant was indisputable. Consequently at the time of reign of Murad II, Ottoman forces were unable to prevent the assaults of the Venetian fleet on the coastal regions. In short, a balance of power was established by the rule of the Ottomans on the land and the rule of Venetians at sea.

İzmir was established at the very end of the bay that carries its name and boasted an excellent defence by the grace of nature. However, in 1472 the Venetian fleet was able to penetrate the bay during the Ottoman Venetian war (1463-79) attacking and plundering the city. Sultan Mehmed II (1451-81) visiting the city after this incident had ordered the restoration of the harbour fortress that controlled the entrance of the inner harbour and which had been neglected for many years becoming ruined. The fortress that could defend the city against attacks from land as well as from sea was reconstructed and equipped with guns to provide security to the city.

İzmir in 16th Century
The Turkish sailor and Admiral Piri Reis gave a detailed account of the Bay of İzmir at the beginning of 16th century. In his famous “Kitab-ı Bahriye” (The Book of Navigation) which he wrote together with an accompanying Atlas in the year 1526, Piri Reis relays sound knowledge of the coasts, islands and harbours of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas. He drew a detailed map of the Bay of İzmir which has provided us with much valuable information. On the map of the bay The Old Fortress, The New Fortress, The Inner Harbour, Halkapınar and Naldöken were marked.

Sources of information about İzmir, its quarters, houses and its population are property deeds and court registers which cover certain years in succession. Half a century before, after the conquest of the City by Timur, the Turkish population was concentrated around Kadifekale due to the existence of a Christian Colony in and around the Harbour Fortress. This was quite a natural fact due to the circumstances existing during these times. The Turkish population descended from the Faik Paşa Quarters on the slopes of Pagos Mountain to the quarters of the Mosque of Selatinzade, Hambey (Bazaar) and the Harbour of lzmir between 1402 and 1528-29 because of the conditions of peace and stability in İzmir and its surrounding area during this period. İzmir was no longer a city of dual communities.

The main sources for the economic, demographic and even political history of the city in this century were the Court Registers of İzmir, which were burned in the middle of last century. Therefore we have to refer to the information released by property deeds, in order to gain knowledge about the state of the city in the XVIth century. These books contain information on the quarters, houses and military personnel of the city. The chart below discloses information on the first and second half of the 16th century.

It is difficult for us to make a judgement of the commercial potential of İzmir in this century because of the absence of sources of direct knowledge. Piri Reis gives us the following information on the İzmir Bay and on İzmir itself.

It is in this way, the vessels approaching İzmir, sail toward the south-east near Kızıldağ. They sail until they reach Sancak Burnu and change course to the middle of the open sea because there is a rising sea bottom here. The sea is not shallow until the fortress of İzmir (Harbour Fortress) is reached. Large vessels can easily reach the İzmir Fortress and be moored by means of anchor. In front of the Fortress there is a pile of huge stones. The ships are tied to those stones, they then anchor and lie in this state. There is also the inner harbour. The circumference of this harbour is one mile. This harbour we entered first by large vessels and heavy barges. But it was filled when we entered later. Now only small vessels can enter. The entrance of this harbour is not wide.

Izmir was not more important than the harbour cities surrounding it in the 16th century. At the beginning of that century (1527-28) the income of İzmir customs was approximately 80.000 Akcha and of Urla approximately 30,000 Akcha. However the customs of Çeşme together with the station of Aya Yorgi yielded exactly 684,667 Akcha. This provides proof that Çeşme played a more active part in foreign trade than İzmir. In the second half of the century (1575) no great increase was registered in the custom books, compared to the previous period. This shows us, that no increase occurred in the flow of commercial goods for half a century

İzmir in the 17th Century
Sources related to İzmir give us more information compared to the previous century. Primarily, the migration of merchants from the isle of Chios (Sakız) and from other locations, as well as the transfer of the French, English, Venetian and Dutch consulates to İzmir up to 1621 point out the growing importance of the harbour city. It is a factor to be aware of that Iranian Silk reached İzmir in 1621. The Ottoman-Iranian war at the beginning of the 12th century allowed İzmir to compete with the city of Aleppo which had been the centre of Iranian silk trade in the previous century. Furthermore, the construction of the Sancak Fortress by the Ottomans at the narrowest point of the bay made Izmir a peaceful port and a trade centre for merchant vessels.

The famous traveller Evliya Çelebi who visited İzmir in 1671 relates valuable information on the city. According to him, there were 12 mosques, 40 medrese (schools), numerous clergymen and many students in the city. There were 11 bath-houses (hamam), 82 commercial buildings (Han) and 70 water fountains to meet the needs of the population. He tells of 17 soup kitchens for the poor and 3060 shops liable to taxation as well as 300 large warehouses where commercial goods were stored. İzmir which was also an industrial city hosted 70 soap factories and 20 tannery plants as well as other manufacturing plants for dyed fabrics. Our traveller also provides information on the various quarters of İzmir. It is possible to describe İzmir as a large cultural and commercial centre which was host to several cultures, living side by side.

It is well known that İzmir underwent great physical change following Evliya Çelebi’s visit. Mr. Paul Rycaut who was the British Consul of İzmir observed these changes and developments. According to him, the Head of the Custom Offices of İzmir, Hüseyin Ağa succeeded in drawing the attention and the interest of the Sultan and of the Grand Vizier to İzmir. During the final quarter of the century İzmir not only attracted trade merchants from Europe, but also Iranian merchants who had become aware of İzmir’s status as the fastest developing trade centre of the empire. İzmir as a harbour city where roads and sea routes came together, was about to become an important marketplace for commercial goods arriving from all parts of the world. Ottoman State officials had foreseen the commercial potential of this city and had provided for the construction of vast buildings for the development of the city as an international trade centre.

The Grand Vizier Köprülü Fazıl Ahmet Paşa (1661-76) who based his naval forces in İzmir in preparation for the conquest of Crete (1669) built the Bedesten (Financial Centre) essential to the commercial life of the city. Here were to be found several shops and brokers who functioned as banks. The next construction was the Customs House a piled structure built above sea level in the year 1675. The Customs House was built as an attractive and magnificent structure maybe to demonstrate the power of the State. The Ottoman State has secured, despite the objections and resistance of foreign merchants, the right to tax commercial goods via this Customs House.

In the same year, the Grand Vizier instigated the construction of a business centre bearing his name. This was completed in 1677. Furthermore, taking the needs of the population of İzmir into account, water was supplied to the city from Buca and Halicarnassos (Bodrum) and 73 new water fountains were erected.

Demographic Factors
With the exception of the information provided by Evliya Çelebi, it is quite difficult to obtain information on the population of the city because of insufficient sources namely official records. However, foreign travellers have related some information of a general and approximate nature concerning the population of İzmir. The population predictions of the travellers who visited İzmir are given in the chart below:

The leading ones in the list of natural catastrophes to affect the population of İzmir are first earth-quakes and then epidemics. Foreign Consuls in İzmir and foreign travellers have supplied information concerning these events. The most destructive one in this century for the city was the earthquake of 1688. According to the report prepared by the French Consulate, the centre of the earthquake was around Sancak Fortress and started some time before noon on Saturday of July 10. The walls of the fortress were swallowed by the earth along with their cannons. All the neigh-bouring houses were destroyed, the roots of the trees were visible through the earth and the number of the dead is estimate of around 16,000 to 19,000. Most of the foreign merchants and officials survived because they were out of the city for the weekend. The fire that broke out in the course of the earthquake, spread to the city through French Street mainly due to the Imbat (Western Winds) and nearly all the lower İzmir was burned down. Three Catholic Churches belonging to the Capucines, Jesuits and Franciscans were first destroyed then burned down in the course of the earthquake and fires. The great Greek Orthodox Church of St.George burned down along with its priest’s quarters. The Armenian Church could not be saved from the same fate. Only three of the 17 mosques in İzmir remained while all the others were destroyed.

Great holes opened in the ground during the earthquake and black water gushed from these. The next day a lot of dead fish were found along the coast. The coastline of lower İzmir lost elevation by one foot (30 cm). Furthermore the French, English and Dutch colonies lost goods worth more then one million pilasters as well as cash, credits and commercial books to the same value. All archives containing the correspondence of the foreign consulates were burned as well. The loss of the English Colony alone exceeded 300,000 Thaler.

The Ottoman State took measures for the catastrophe İzmir. Sultan Süleyman (1687-91) sent an official on his behalf to reclaim and to return the money of the European merchants taken by plunderers during the course of the earthquake.

Undoubtedly the vivid commercial life of the city was severely disrupted by the earthquake. Important commercial buildings used by local and foreign merchants had been devastated. The Sultan’s neglect in supporting the restoration of the damage and the absence of contractors to rebuild the city caused the foreign merchants’ colonies to seek other cities to invest in instead of remaining in İzmir. Following thorough discussions among themselves they decided to settle at the isle of Chios or Phokea (Foça) or Magnesia (Manisa) and continue with their activities there. However, the Consuls and the leaders of the foreign colonies of Izmir agreed to reconstruct the city as being the best possible solution in order to solve the important problem of commercial security during the on-going war of Sacra Liga between the Ottomans and Habsburgians (1683-99).

There were also commercial disadvantages in relocation to the centres mentioned previously. Furthermore the English merchants were not able to establish centres in cities other than İzmir and continue to gain support from their home country. According to the decree concerning the English Company of Levant in 1683, English merchants were prohibited to conduct commercial activities in centres other than İzmir, Istanbul and Aleppo. Consequently, the reconstruction of the commercial buildings of the city was realised with the support of the foreign colonies led by the English and commercial life began to flourish in İzmir from 1692 onwards.

Venice being a member of the Sacra Liga and fighting against the Ottoman State, had sent its Navy to Chios in 1694 and conquered the island. They then entered the Bay of İzmir in pursuit of the Ottoman Navy. However they were not able to sail beyond the Fortress of Sancak that locked the bay and protected a powerful land force. Their courage failed at the approaches of the Harbour of İzmir.

İzmir, being a harbour city, was wide open to epidemics. The months following the great earth- quake in 1688 witnessed many diseases that ravaged the people of the city. According to the information given by the travellers Tavernier and d’Arvieux every year saw new outbreaks of plague in the city.

Mosquitoes could breed in the trenches of lower İzmir and other dirty water-holes and the Muslim population’s traditional belief in fatalism was not effective against malaria and other diseases with fever. We are not in possession of any information regarding precautions taken by city officials against this situation. The Europeans used to leave İzmir for the countryside when plague and other diseases were spreading, to return only after the risk of disease had decreased. Foreigners arriving on ships also never left their vessels for land during these periods.

İzmir in the 18th Century
In this century İzmir became the marketplace with the most potential among the harbours and trade centres of the East Mediterranean. İzmir became a place of competition between the mercantilist States of Europe, such as England, France and Holland and a great market where the raw materials of the east were exported to the Western countries and where manufactured goods from the west, especially woollen fabrics, were imported for the Turkish and Iranian markets. The English founded their Levant Company in 1581 the French followed in 1666. İzmir’s position as a trading centre in Western Anatolia certainly created an environment of competition which reached its highest level in the first half of the XVII century. The sources of information on this period become more precise with increasing numbers of foreign travellers visiting the city and relating their knowledge of this period.

İzmir is neatly placed in the centre of the commercial world of Eastern Mediterranean. One of the reasons for İzmir’s becoming one of the richest commercial centres of the World was the development of capitalism in Europe and the search for new markets for the ready manufactured goods as well as the fact that the transport on the caravan route from Iran to the cities Erzurum-Tokat-Amasya-Beypazarı-Ankara-Afyon-İzmir and Bursa was active again upon the ending of the Ottoman-Iranian war. This enabled enabling silk and silken products coming from Iran and Bursa, lambs wool from Ankara, olive oil, acom, opium, cotton and agricultural products of the Aegean Region to be exported intensively. In addition military equipment needed by the Ottoman State in times of armed confrontation made it necessary for the State to support such trading activities. Also during the first half of this century French fabrics were imported by İzmir harbour to compete with the English in the markets of Anatolia and Iran. The Ottoman State tried to give priority to merchants coming from England, France and Holland, as these States had peaceful relations with the Ottomans. In return, the Armenians started to manufacture woollen and cotton goods in their facilities in İzmir.

Following the second half of the XVIII century silk trade started to decline, as cheaper silken products from China and Bengal found their way into the European markets. At this same time, the Caspian Sea was opened to the trade of silk upon the conquest of Northem Caucuses Region by the Russians in the years of 1722-24 which directed this trade route to St. Petersburg. The Black Sea was duly opened to foreign trade, and Trabzon started to enter in to a competition with Izmir. The caravan routes on land were losing their importance. Thus, İzmir began to give up its traditional, commercial features and became a harbour city for the export of agricultural and mining products.

In the course of these developments, the demand for agricultural man power was met by bringing in a Greek population from the Aegean islands and from the Pelleponnes, increasing the overall Greek settlement in the coastal parts of the Aegean Region. Travellers of this period have related the following figures on the population of İzmir:

By looking at the population of İzmir in general, we observe that due to the secure environment that was provided under the Ottoman rule, the Muslim population began to move from Kadifekale to the lower parts of İzmir, whereas the coastal section did not change at all, housing an overwhelming Christian population. The locations of the Greek, Armenian and Jewish Quarters have certainly remained unchanged; being located a little behind the coastline. In this picture we can observe that the European colonies of merchants used to live on the coastal strip from the Harbour Fortress to Punto and that the “French Street” parallel to the sea used to be the centre of intense commercial activities for a long period of time. We have to remember that, although this street was a part of İzmir, it was completely separated from the Muslim population.

Traveller Tournefort relates detailed information on French Street at the beginning of the 18th century. According to him, this was the most beautiful and well preserved street of the city built along the coastline. According to Traveller Pococke, the city looked charming when viewed from the sea and the city surroundings extended as far as four miles. The houses of the Europeans on both sides of the street were two storied one side facing the street while the other side looked towards the sea. Directly on the sea shore, there were stations for the ships to unload and reload their cargo. This street was only wide enough for a loaded camel to pass through. Traveller Lucas relates that the flags of England, France, Holland, Venice and Genoa were flown so that a foreign visitor had the feeling of having arrived at a Christian city.

The power and wealth of İzmir in this century attracted elements eager to profit illegally. The dangerous attitude of North Africans towards the foreign consulates could be dealt with, but other disturbances were at hand. A great uprising took place in İzmir in 1727-28, which appeared to be a confrontation between the men of the Voyvoda and the Janissaries. In fact the Janissaries aimed to gain control of the city. This uprising caused vast damage to the city, but was able to be overcome by the forces of the Governor of Aydın.

The rebellion under the leadership of Sarıbeyoğlu Mustafa in Western Anatolia, between the years 1736-39, effected the city although only directed against the State itself. As he marched on Izmir, he (Mustafa) was paid the ransom money demanded thus saving the city from being plundered. When Sarıbeyoğlu severed the caravan roads that yielded the customs levies for the State, he was attacked by the forces of Ottoman Government and was finally executed.

In 1775, the Voyvoda of Bergama, Sağancılı Veli joined forces with Ivaz Ağa, the Voyvoda of Karaburun to threaten İzmir. Following the burning of the vessels of the Ottoman Fleet by the Russians in Çeşme, the Ottomans based newly formed forces in Sancak Fortress and secured İzmir defending the entrance to the bay. The Ottoman forces were also able to capture and destroy the forces of the two rebels Sağancılı Veli and Ivaz Ağa and thus İzmir could return to their normal life. Later, the incidents of 1797 seriously affected life in the city. These incidents of an economic and social nature, caused by opposing interest groups, personal greed and also involving the consuls of İzmir, display a peculiar part of the way of life in that city.

Epidemics were always a part of city life and the plague which also took place in İzmir in this century, led to mass deaths. Moreover, great earthquakes in the years of 1723, 1728, 1739, 1760 and 1778 caused vast damage to the city and its people. Houses that were built of wood and bricks were able to withstand the earthquakes but not the fires. The great fires of 1742, 1752, 1761 and 1763 destroyed the larger part of the French quarter and the lower city.

İzmir in the XIXth Century
In this century İzmir was to witness great and fundamental changes regarding issues such as the functioning of commerce, transportation, public works, industry, agriculture, mining, population and city development. The “Levant Company” which played a great part in the successful monopoly of the English as a powerful trade colony in İzmir until the beginning of the 18th century and was firmly backed by the Crown, was liquidated in 1825. After this, English citizens such as the powerful families Giraud, Whitall, Camaud and La Fontaine became the dominant forces in the commercial activities of the city.

On the other hand, free trading at the beginning of the XIXth century by European merchants was limited by the monopoly restrictions of the Ottoman State under the “yed-i vahid” principles. For many years the policy of the State was to prohibit the export of grain, subject to official concessions. The main items of trade which were covered by “yed-i vahid” were olive oil, opium, acorn and silk. The Turkish-English trade agreement of 1838 marked a watershed in trading practice.

Until this agreement, foreign merchants were not allowed to operate in the interior parts of the country. They got around this with the aid of Greeks and Armenians, who collected the agricultural products from rural areas and helped to sell the finished goods there. This prohibition called “yed-i vahid” was lifted by the agreement of 1838 whereupon we observe that the English, and later other European merchants entered the local markets directly without Ottoman citizens as intermediaries. The conditions provided by this agreement to foreign States and merchants were the: The monopoly applied by the Ottoman State was to be lifted, foreign merchants would not be required to be subject to concessions in operations between Ottoman harbours, they are to become equal with Ottoman merchants, several local taxes are to be removed, instead a duty of 5% importation and 12% in exportation was to be introduced and foreign merchants and their goods would be able to move freely in Ottoman territories for trading purposes. The vast concessions extended to foreigners were a very important factor in the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

England profited by the agreement of 1838 and penetrated the Ottoman market, successfully founding the “İzmir Trade Bank” in 1843. It is well known that Credit Lyonnais and the Ottoman Bank were set up and developed in İzmir. In the middle of this century, merchants from twenty foreign States were active in İzmir. The establishment of an English Chamber of Commerce in 1888 strengthened the English presence in the commercial life of the city. A year later, although late in opening up to world markets Germany became active in the Aegean market, operating a shipping line between İzmir and Hamburg.

Alongside the commercial activities, there were also essential developments in matters of communication. In 1837 the French Post Office opened followed by the Ottoman post office in 1843. Also developments in health care were at hand. The first Turkish hospital in İzmir was operating in 1849 thanks to active support by Emin Muhlis Paşa. With the development of corporations and after 1850 the start of capital tlow in Europe, we also witness the construction of railroads in Western Anatolia. The main objective of this activity was to convey the products of the Aegean Region to İzmir and to Europe.

The contract for the construction of the İzmir-Aydın railway was given to an English company in 1856. Construction started in 1857 and had reached Aydın in 1866. Similarly the construction of the İzmir-Turgutlu line was agreed upon with the English in 1863. This railway reached Manisa in 1865 and Turgutlu in 1866, and was later extended to Alaşehir in 1875 and to Afyon in 1897. The railway to Aydın was extended to Sarayköy in 1882 and Dinar in 1889. Many smaller lines were also built in conjunction with the main railways.

While the construction of railways was being carried on in the Aegean Region the requirement of a modem harbour and pier in İzmir became pressing The contract for building the harbour of İzmir was given to three English contractors, this was later transferred to the M. M. Dussaud Brothers from Marseille. This project was completed around the end of 1874. The additional piers and wave breakers were completed in 1880 and became famous among the people as “Kordon”. At this time however, the Bay of İzmir was in danger of becoming filled with alluvion carried by the Gediz River. The Ottoman Administration intervened by building a channel in 1890 from the river mouth to the sea in Phokea (Foça), before it could block the entrance of the bay and turning it into a lake; thereby protecting İzmir’s sea traffic.

The illumination of the City was taken in to hand while trying to develop the city into a modern centre. A gas company established in 1860 built a factory to produce gas to light the city streets. The agreement between the city and the company was terminated in 1890. Illumination of İzmir by electricity was achieved in 1905.

The Ottoman administration then decided to drain the swamps of Yeni Kale (New Fortress) which were regarded as a threat to public health in İzmir with the growing population of a commercial harbour city. Swamp drainage was completed in 1891 together with the construction of Yeni Kale, now named Hamidiye.

It is known that the first census in the Ottoman Empire was done in 1831. The population has been estimated in recent times, by multiplying the number of consecutive tax subjects by 4, 5, 6 or a higher figure. The State, in particular after the times of “Tanzimat” in 1839, published its “Devlet-i Aliye-i Salname” and some information regarding the population was found in these sources. In addition, the Aydın Province Salname’s which published twenty-five issues between the years 1879-1908 also contain information regarding the population of Aydın and İzmir. Kemal Karpat also evaluated the census of the years 1881/2-1893 and conveyed detailed knowledge ot Ottoman population registration. Valuable information on İzmir is also to be found in the document prepared by Ibn’ül Cemal M. Ragıp in 1918 concerning the population of the Aydın Province.

In previous centuries the population estimations regarding İzmir were given by foreign travellers. These are given below for comparison. Two of these estimations were affected by local news- papers being published in İzmir.

İzmir in the XXth Century (Till 1923)
Apparently because of its geography, İzmir remained one of the few cities which survived the First World War with few incidents, although the Ottoman Empire suffered heavily under its effects. Contrary to the battles at Gallipoli and Çanakkale that cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of soldiers, the Allied Fleet undertook a sea raid on İzmir only once and this was without success. This fleet penetrated the Bay of İzmir once in 1915, on March 5 th-l0th and bombed the fortifications of Yeni Kale. The Ottomans could defend the fortifications quite well due to their superior artillery; and by sinking the vessels confiscated from them on the narrow sea passage at this point, they were able to prevent the Allies from their planned assault on İzmir. The Governor of İzmir, Rahmi Bey showed a firm stand as he replied to the envoy of the fleet which demanded to occupy the city: “I would rather burn İzmir than to surrender this city to you”. Christian merchants as holders of capital had also been making requests to the Allies for the withdrawal of this fleet. Thus İzmir was saved from devastation by war. The city was subject to no more military operations until after the treaty of Mondros.

It was decided by the secret treaties of London in 1915 and St. Jean de Maurienne in 1917, to hand over the Aegean Region including İzmir as well as the Region of Antalya, to the Italians. This was to be Italy’s reward for aiding the Allies. The situation, however changed in the conference of Paris in January 1919 and it was decided to hand the Aegean Region over to Greece, under British leadership. In January 1919, the Allied Fleet which also included Greek vessels was already in İzmir. The representatives of the Allies had started to interfere with the local administration of the city and took control of all of the telegram offices in the region. The intellectuals of İzmir founded an “Association to Defend the Rights of Ottomans in İzmir” on November 6th 1918, the day of arrival of the first Allied battle ship in the Bay of İzmir. This association held its congress in the Milli Sinema (National Cinema). The association then published a memorandum stating that the majority of the people in the region were Turkish and that they were determined to defend the existence of their people and of their rights.

Although opposed by Italy at the Conference of Paris, Lloyd George and Venizelos, Prime Ministers of Britain and Greece agreed to hand over İzmir and its surrounding area to Greek mandate. The Greek war fleet took to sea at once and penetrated the Bay of İzmir with the support of the British Fleet. The British Fleet also occupied the fortifications of Phokea (Foça), Urla, Kösten Island, and of the Yeni Kale called the New Fortress. The Turkish intellectuals becoming active founded the “Committee for the Defence of Motherland”. This committee changed its name to “Rejection of Annexation” the day before the occupation of the city by Greek forces. It continued its activities during the occupation period, becoming the “İzmir Association for the Defence of Rights” following the National Congress of Sivas.

The famous rally in the İzmir-Quarter of Maşatlık (Jewish cemetery) was organised on May 14th by this association and the coming occupation of the city was publicly condemned. The Greek military units that landed on May l5th in İzmir cruelly crushed civilian resistance and the resulting massacre in the city lasted for many days. The occupation of İzmir and its liberation by the Turkish National Forces on September 9 th 1922 mark the dates of the beginning and the end of our National Liberation War as well.

It was the Day
“The face of İstanbul seemed to be majestic only for once and only for a few days”. This was appropriate for the disaster the befell: In these days of the Greek attacks İzmir, what a sudden sadness: What a deep pain it was. That crowd which flowed through the streets with the deep calmness of Islam, the magnificent crowd in the formerly glorious honoured squares, the mourning callers, the black flag, and Halide Edib that raised as a symbol of that deep sorrow. The prayers and the tears…

The disaster that seemed like, the beginning of the world to some and the end of the world to others. The ones that believed it was only a beginning had rushed to the port of Samsun in Anatolia.

The 15th day of May is the day that the Greek army came to İzmir and the day Mustafa Kemal Pasha boarded the steamer in Istanbul to go to Anatolia.

There can’t be another memory of such significance to the nation. But the memories that give happiness lose their strength with time. Happiness is not able to compete with time. However, to the contrary the grief is deep. It makes one think, love, and be strond. Nationalwill began with a disaster af such dimensions. It takes its force will and determination from this disaster.

Nationlism was the heat in our hearts when the Greek army attacked İzmir. That heat became a spark when M. Kemla Pasha came to Samsun. In two years it got bigger and took the form of a sun shining on a summit like today. It is not only us but also the Greeks that are looking to that sun now. We entered the third year of the disaster. “Kato Venizelos” cries are not heard anymore through Kordon Street, on the contrary there are Greek generals deep in thought wondering about. Instead of a Greece today that will attack İzmir and rule it with three army battalions there is a Greece that is collapsing together with its throne and crown. It cannot stand with an army or 120.000 sweating people. Army deserters escape to the mountains of Mora and villages of Teselya. Drahmi fell down faster than the prestige or the Greek army.

Before Greece transferred the fortune of İzmir to the safes of Athens it extended its presence to the border of İzmir. The most optimistic of Europe’s press write “Greece must leave İzmir as soon as possible ‘Temps’ which heard that King Konstantin was planning to leave and rule. Thrace only, recommended that he act before a final disaster and give up Thrace too.

We are in the second year after the attack of İzmir and the new Turkish army that was formed by nationalist action is just one year old. The Turkish governor is not yet in the Government Building in İzmir and the red flags are not flying. İzmir harbour still can not be opened to world trade like before. Native of foreign, nobody can win the peace. Wretched İzmir is still a dry fountain like poor Selanik (Salonika).

But the aim of our imagination that has made us struggle for two years, became a reality before the eyes of the most important representatives of the foreign press.

Beautiful İzmir will meet Turkish flags soon.”