İzmir

Smyrna in Ancient Times
Our knowledge of Smyrna is based on the fables of some ancient writers rather than on scientific data. For example in one of these stories, it is claimed that the city was founded by Tantalos, the mythic king of Phrygia, whereas in another this area is claimed to be inhabited by Lelegs. But according to other ancient stories and a common thesis of many historians of our day, the city was founded by an Amazon (a woman warrior), during the Hitite rule of Anatolia. However, “Myrina”, which is one of the Aiolis cities also claimed to be founded by an Amazon, seems to be a similar name to Smyrna. There have been many speculations about the meaning of Smyrna. The most reasonable seems to be that the name is related to the place name Ti-smurna, mentioned in the Kültepe inscriptions. On the other hand, the name of the city has been written as Zmyrna on monuments and coins dating back to Hellenistic and Roman times but this is a different pronunciation of the word. This is a very common practice in old Greek.

We have limited knowledge in regard with the earlier periods of Smyrna which was inhabited by Aiols but later on invaded by lons. According to a present excavation taking place in Bayraklı (the district where the city was first founded) the history of the area dates back to 3000 B.C.. The ruins found in Bayraklı tumulus which used to have contact with the sea in ancient times, show that the area had been deserted in IVth century B.C.. As will be discussed later on, the city is known to have been moved onto the slopes of Pagos as a developed and extended city.

Research shows us that the Greek presence started in the middle of Xth century B.C. by Aiol colonisation and the city was invaded a century later by lons. According to Herodotos and other an cient writers, the city was invaded by a group of Kolophons who had been accepted as immigrants to Smyrna. Forced to leave their lands, they took advantage of the opportunity provided by the departure of the Smyrnians outside the city to celebrate a religious festival to seize the city. It was in this way that the lons gained possession of the city. In fact this thesis is suppoıted by ceramic finding discovered in Bayraklı. Smyrna now a lon city and gradually growing stronger claimed membership to the Confederation (Panionion) founded by twelve lonian cities (Miletos, Myous, Priene, Ephesos, Kolophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrai, Klazomenai, Phokaia, Samos and Khios) but was rejected. The reason was either the veto of Kolophon or the desire of the (Inion (Dodekapoleis) to keep the number of members constant.

The VIIth century B.C. was a time of prosperity and peace for Smyrna and for Western Anatolia. But also it was during this time that Smyrnians had to fight against the attacks of the Lydian King Gyges. Gyges, enthroned in 685 B.C.; in order to control the Western Anatolia trade and the import-export harbours, attacked Smyrna, Magnesia, Kolophon and Miletos. Although the Smyrnians fought back against Gyges bravely, they failed to prevent Alyattes, the Lydian King, from conquering the city and destroying it around 600 B.C.. Alyattes forced the citizens to leave the city and live in villages. We neither know the names nor the locations of these villages. But it is possible to say that they might have been on the fertile plains like that of Bayraklı. As a consequence for 300 years, during the golden age of the Greek civilisation, the Classical Period, Smyrna was been wiped from the historic scene.

After the conquest of the East by Alexander the Great, all the Hellenic cities of West Anatolia, including Smyrna achieved peace and prosperity. Pausanias, on the re-establishment of Smyrna says the following: Alexander the Great, in 334 B.C. visits Smyrna and goes hunting on Pagos Hill (Kadifekale) when exhausted, he falls asleep under a plane-tree next to the Nemesis temple. In his dream, the Three Goddess Nemesis asks him to establish a city there and bring the people of the old city (Bayraklı) to this city. But in those days there was a tradition to ask for an oracle before a new city was to be established.

So the Smyrnians went and asked for help from Apollon. He replied with the following words: “There and four times happy shall those men be hereafter. Who shall dwell on Pagus beyond the sacred Meles” Encouraged, the people of Smyrna settled on the slopes of Pagos and the new city was established. When Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C., the establishment of the city was continued by Antigonos and was finally completed by Lysimakhos. For this reason, the newly established Smyrna at Kadifekale was called by the name of Lysimakhos’s daughter, Eurydikeia (the city of Eurydikeia) but shortly after, the name was abandoned. But Alexander the Great has always been regarded as the founder of the city. Six hundred years later that is in the 3rd century A.D. an illustration of Alexander the Great sleeping under a plane-tree and two Nemeses can be seen on a Smyrnian coin.

The newly established Smyrna on Pagos was recognised and respected by Hellenistic Monarchs and independent cities. In the 3rd century A.D., the city was accepted as the 13th member of the lonian Confederation which had rejected an earlier attempt by Smyrna to join. But, at this time, city-States could not survive on their own without the support of powerful States like Pergamon, Syria and Rome. The Smyrnians, however, were aware of this and established a friendship with the Syrians. Also, the city was declared to be sacred and untouchable by the king Seleukos II. During this time that Pergamon become a strong power in western Anatolia, the city of Smyrna was ruled by Pergamon during the Attalos I period. Yet, during this era, the city was free. lt could form its own army, could print money but could not act independently in relation to other cities without the approval of Pergamon.

In the 3rd century B.C., we see close relations between the Romans and the Pergamon Kingdom, through this; they tried to reinforce their sovereignty in Western Anatolia. It is during this era that the Smymians chose the side of the more powerful and built a temple in the name of the Goddess of Rome in 195 B.C.. In 190 B.C., the Romans, with the aid of the Pergamon Kingdom and Smyrna, defeated the Syrian King Anthiokos III in the Magnesian War fought near Manisa for sovereignty over Western Anatolia. In the Apomeia peace treaty signed right after the war, Smyma preserved its independent position in relation to Pergamon.

In 133 B.C., right after the death of the Pergamon King Attalos III, a man named Aristonikos rebelled against the Romans and strove to be the king of Pergamon. The fight between Aristonikos and Rome lasted about four years and he was finally suppressed. Now, the Pergamon Kingdom is replaced by the Asian State of the Romans. During this time, Smyrna is one of the cities let free by this newly established State. But after 70-80 years, in the middle of the 1st century B.C., this freedom was taken back because Smyrna had hosted an enemy of Rome, Pontus King Mithridates, and had printed a coin with his portrait on. Now Smyrna is one of the dependent cities.

Smyrna, although a part of the Asian State during the Roman Kingdom, had all the advantages of the Empire and had led a life of prosperity. It is no doubt that all the monuments had been erected during this period. For example, Strabon who saw the city during the early Empire times used the expression “the most beautiful of all cities”. Of course, what Strabon meant was not the natural beauty of the city but the spectacular buildings that had been erected.

“A part of the city is on the mountain Pagos and is surrounded by city walls. But the real city is on the flat land where the harbour, Metroon and the gymnasium stands. The city is spectacular with its area divided by straight streets. The streets are cohered with stone tiles, there are double layered doors (porticos) in the shape of quadrangles. There is also a library and a wooden statue of Homeros and his altar located on a quadrangle stoa called Homereion. Smyrnians claim that Homeros is also a Smyrnian citizen and a Smyrnian coin called Homereion exists. The river Meles flows from just near the city walls. Apart from all the monuments there is also a sea-port that can close in the event of an emergency. But there is also a fault of Smyrna which can not be ignored. When laying the stone tiles, the engineers forgot to lay a sewerage system under the stones and for this reason especially on rainy days dirty water couers all the streets. ”

Many others like Strabon have mentioned the beauty of Smyrna. For example, P. Aelius Aristides (117-180 B.C.) who had spend a period of his life there seems to verify what Strobon has said about the city. According to Aristides, there was a Zeus Altar in the middle of the Agora (During the Agora excavations, there have been findings of reliefs that surrouıided the Agora and that illustrate Demeter and Poseidon) The natural history writer Plinius when describing Smyrna, described it as “the light of Asia”, the dialogue writer Lucianus could say about a woman being as “beautiful as Smyrna”.

Smymians who were proud of the beauty of their city used the expression “the first and the most spectacular of Asia in beauty and in greatness… the ornament of lonia” on coins and monuments. In any case, being from Smyrna was considered such a privilege that in an epitaph that is dated in the Age of Roman Empire information was given about the dead as “Birth place: Dear Smyrna”.

But the Smyrna of spectacular monuments was damaged by two earthquakes, one in 17 B.C. and the other in the year 178. After the first one, the Roman King Tiberius, and after the second one, Marcus Aurelius, sent fınancial aid to the city for it to rebuild itself. P. Aelius Aristides who was present during the earthquake in the year 178 had taken an important role in the restoration of the city and therefore had been given citizenship and his statue was erected in the Agora.

Religion in Smyrna
Like in any other Hellen city, Zeus was the most respected of all the Gods in Smyrna. Smyrnians who had built an Altar in the Agora of commerce and a temple most probably in Değirmentepe (?) for Zeus used expressions like Akraios (one that lives high above), Soter (saviour), and Olympios (from Olympus). We know that a medical school had been built in the city in the 3rd Century B.C. by a doctor called Hikesios. This shows that Asklepios, the master of medicine was also worshipped. In addition, some ancient authors write that there was an Asklepios temple (Asklepieion) right in the gymnasium on the shore of Smyrna.

The Apollon cult seems to have a long history in Smyrna, to the extent that, in the 4th Century B.C., many illustrations of this God are seen on the coins of the city. Also, this God bore different names for example Apollon Kissaloudenos, Apollon Aquieus, Apollon Perminoundeis and Apollon Kledones. These findings and some ancient writers lead us to believe that there was more than one Apollon temple. For example, altar stones found on the skirts of Pagos seem to direct towards an Apollon Kissaloudenos temple. And, again, according to Strabon, there was an Apollon temple between Smyrna and Klazomenai but we don’t know exactly where this was.

We know that the king of wine Dionysos was named Briseus in Smyrna. This cult was most likely brought to the city by the colonists who were of Aiol origin. The Dionysos temple would probably have been built outside the city if you take the legend seriously. The legend claims that lonian colonists conquered the city when the citizens were outside the city walls for the Dionysos Festival.

We know that the king of wine Dionysos was named Briseus in Smyrna. This cult was most likely brought to the city by the colonists who were of Aiol origin. The Dionysos temple would probably have been built outside the city if you take the legend seriously. The legend claims that lonian colonists conquered the city when the citizens were outside the city walls for the Dionysos Festival.

Above, we have mentioned that the Smyrnians highly respected Homeros and believed that he was born in Smyrna and built a monument which they called Homerion. According to Strabon, in this monument there was an altar and a statue of Homeros carved out of wood. The Smyrnians had also minted a bronze coin called Homereion. Silver and bronze coins bearing Homeros’s name and portrait have been found from the period from the 2nd century A.D. to the end of the 3rd century A.D. We don’t know where this monument stood but can suppose it to be some-where near Meles (Halkapınar?), who is another god worshipped by the Smyrnians.

It is without doubt that the most worshipped Goddess was the mother goddess. The mother Goddess’s temple (Metroon) has a history that goes back to the 3rd century B.C. Most probably Metroon, which is near Tepecik, has been described “as the most beautiful temple in Smyrna” by Aristides. Another significant Goddess for the Smyrnians was the Goddess Nemesis who asked Alexander the Great for the establishment of Smyrna on Pagos. In fact, there were two Nemesises in Smyrna believed to be the daughters of Night (Nyks). According to some inscriptions, during the Hadrianus period, there was a feast called Nemeseia in the name of these two goddesses. In the first century A.D., we see illustrations of these Nemeses found in a temple on Pagos (Nemesion) as well as on city coins.

On the other hand, the temple that was discovered during the excavations of Bayraklı, and which had been built in 7th century B.C.: The Spectacular Athenian Temple demonstrates the im portance of this Goddess to the Smyrnians. In fact, in a peace treaty signed by Smyrna and Magnesia (Manisa), we see both sides drinking in the name of Athena.

According to ancient writers and inscriptions, apart from the Gods and Goddesses that we have already mentioned, there were semi-gods that were worshipped in Smyrna as well like Ares, Hades, Eros, Dioskouroi, Herakles, Akhilleus, Egyptian Gods, Mithras, Demeter and Persephone, Selene, Nymphas and Mousas.

City, People, Councils and Offical Duties
Smyrna city encompassed not only those who lived within the city walls but also the population who lived in the villages in the territory outside the city walls (territorium). We don’t know the borders of this city but the city can be said to be surrounded by Klazomenai in the west, Kolophon in the south, Sardeis in the east, Temnos and Hermos (Gediz River) in the north. All free men had every privilege and political responsibility as citizens. They were organised into clans (phyle). If we take men, women, and children who had a right to citizenship and slaves who were not taken into consideration, in the 1st century B.C. and 1st century A.D., the Smyrnian population seems to have been around 100,000.

The People’s Council consisted of all the Smyrnian citizens. The Council was called Demos and it gathered in the theatre. According to some ancient inscriptions, the city council had the right to discuss the important political matters of the city, to solve important administrative problems, to honour those who benefited the city and to accept the ambassadors of different cities and countries.

A second organ that had a right over the city was the Boule (Senate) which was a second council. We don’t know how this council was constituted but most probably, this council consisted of the people appointed by the ruling power (for example, the Pergamon Kingdom and then the Roman Kingdom), officers, and rich citizens. This council was headed by a chairman called Boularkhos and the meetings were held in a building called Bouleuterion. Although the two councils agreed upon the decisions for the city, in practice the city was ruled by the Boule (senate). Like in any other Hellenic city, works were carried out by a committee (prytaneis) chosen from the members. As we understand from an inscription, each committee member was on duty for a month.

During the period of Roman Rule of Anatolia, in Smyrna, as in any other city, there was a council of senior citizens called Gerousia. Most probably, this council was a social club consisting of experienced and wealthy citizens who got together to provide services meeting social, sporting, political and religious needs.

The most important of all the officers were the commanders (Strategoi) whose number and duration of duty varied. The major duty of the commanders was to call the council to meetings, to propose laws, to carry on relationships with the other states, and to initiate official engagements. The higher order officers other than the commanders were as follows:: Stephanephoros, who directed the religious ceremonies, Grammateus, who was the secretary of Senate and People’s Council, Grammatophylaks, who was responsible for the Council’s Archives (Arkheion or Mouseion), Tamias who was the responsible of public revenue department , Agoranomos who controlled the weight, length and liquid units and prices in the Agora, Hipparkhos the commander of the mounted unit and Gymnasiarkhos who was director of the gymnasium.

The Poet Homeros and the Meles River
Although Homer never mentioned the city in his legends, all through ancient time, Smyrna, like any other city during that time, claimed Homer’s citizenship to the city and built an altar, and respected him to the point of worship. The arguments Smyrnians put forward on the subject of where Homer was born are far more realistic than the claims put forward by other cities.

The Meles River running through Smyrna is often mentioned both in myths about the establishment of İzmir and the myths about Homer. There are illustrations of the Meles River, in a human form, worshipped as a river goddess to be seen on some Imperial period coins. A translation of a poem found in Bornova on an inscription and then brought to Halkapınar is as follows.

“I say my prayers to Meles (Goddess of River) who is my saviour and who has protected me from dangers and epidemics”.

We don’t know exactly which among the rivers those run into the sea in Bayraklı and Kadifekale is the ancient Meles. As the descriptions of Aristides and some other antique authors, “Many springs outside the city flowed into this river and took the shape of a circle. This river outside the city gates was so small that one could hardly see it at first glance. It ran into the sea at this point. The river was full of fish. It ran regularly all through winter and summer.

It was possible to travel by boat up to its spring. “Near the river’s spring, there were various other water springs and a cave.” As it can be seen there is no river near İzmir that satisfies these criteria. According to scientists, the Kemer/Uzundere brook or the Halkapınar can be two rivers that could be identified with the Meles River.

Pagos Hill / Kadifekale, Theatre, Agora, Gymnasium
Pagos Hill / Kadifekale

As the modern settlement has spread around the Kadifekale area, there have been very few things left of the Smyrna of Hellenistic and Roman times. For example, nothing has been left of Lysimakhos that surrounds Pagos today. The fortified structure named Kadifekale remains from the middle ages. But according to some scientists, the bottom part of the tower at the south-west corner of this castle dates from Hellenistic times.

Theatre

As Aristides mentioned “theatres”, we should think of more than one theatre in Smyrna. But there has been only one theatre discovered on the Northwest skirts of Pagos Hill and very little is left of this theatre. From the steps of this theatre, first built in the Hellenistic period and restored after the earthquake of 178 A.D., the audience must have had a marvellous view of the bay.

Agora

It has not been possible to identify the exact spot of the Agora of commerce in Smyrna. But in the Namazgah region, the State Agora is well preserved and has been brought to daylight during scientific excavations. As the excavations show, at the centre of Agora there is a Basilica in the shape of a Stoa. Without doubt these where daily commercial activities that were carried out. As mentioned above, it is in this Agora that there is a Zeus Altar and related Dexeter and Poseidon reliefs. Like many other buildings, the agora of commerce had been destroyed during the 178 A.D. earthquake and had been rebuilt by Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Gymnasium

As Aristides writings mention Smyrna’s “gymnasiums”, there must have been more than one. The one mentioned by Strabon was most probably on the outskirts of the city and was close to the harbour. One of these gymnasiums was known to be supported financially by the Emperor Hadrianus and the wealthy citizens of Smyrna with the influence of Orator Polemon in this spectacular building. Aristides provide a description: There was a sacred place for Asklepios, a place for sunbathing, a hall, surrounded by 98 columns of valuable marble and porphyry stones with a gilded ceiling for the council of senior citizens. But unfortunately none of the locations of these gymnasiums has been identified in Smyrna.

Smyrna in Late Ancient Times
Although Smyrna was a part of the Asian State of the Romans and had to pay taxes, the city was so wealthy and prosperous that Strabon in the 1st century B.C. called this city “the most beautiful of all cities”.But it wasn’t easy for Greek cities in Anatolia, to gain the support of the Romans.For example, the most important function of Asian Hellens’ Committee established in the earlier time of the Augustus Empire was to carry out the cultural activities of the Empire led by Asiarkh.

However, the first festival organised by this committee had taken place in Smyrna and again Smyrnians not only worshipped the Goddess Rome, but also had a temple built by Emperor Augustus. The city thereby received the title of neokuros (temple erecting city).

Tiberius who succeeded the throne of Emperor Augustus in 14 A.D. is known to have helped eleven cities destroyed by the 178 A.D. earthquake in western Anatolia. It is likely that Smyrna was among the eleven cities that received financial aid.We know that Smyrna and many other Western Anatolian cities were affected by this natural catastrophe.For example, in 41-54 A.D., Roman Emperor Cladius is known to have helped the restoration of the city, especially the theatre and ordered the repair of the Ephesos-Smyrna-Magnesia and Maendrum (Manisa) road.

We are not in a position to say whether relations between Smyrna and Rome were good during the period of Emperor Nero (54-68 A.D.).Although Smyrnians had issued coins with Nero’s portraits and had built a bath in Nympaion dedicated to Nero and the Goddess Apollon.More over in 64 A.D. Nero having decided to restore Rome after the great fire had brought a lot of silver, gold, arts and crafts to Rome and this, of course, affected the Smymians. In 64 A.D. we see philosopher Apollonius of Tyana coming to fonia and visiting Smyrna.

In one of his speeches, he praised the extreme interest of the Smyrnians in literature and the art of rhetoric, and also the spectacular buildings in the city and added that this shouldn’t prevent the city from raising “good people”.He said “A beautiful city is like the Pheidias Zeus carved of stone, but a good person is like the sacred Zeus of Homeros.”

We also don’t know much about the venations between Smyrna and Rome relationships during period of the Vespasianus who replaced Nero on the throne but it is possible to say that peace dominated the Asian State.Apart from that, certain roads in Smyrna, and other States as well, had been repaired during this time. It is at this time that the famous sophist philosopher Niketus is known to have come to Smyrna from the East where he was famous as an orator, and indulged in some cultural activities.

As stated by Philostratos, this man was very famous for a speech style known as the Asian style (or the Ionia style) and gained many admirers of this style. And we know that the historian Tacitus mentioned him and that young Plinius attended his classes.We know that in the year Titus (79/80 A.D.) was enthroned as Roman Emperor, the Asian Governor M. Ulpius Traianus (the father of Traianus who was to be the emperor later on) built a aqueduct that brought water to the Zeus Akraios Temple.

This temple was a copy of the Jupiter Capitolinus Temple in Rome and was restored by Vespasianus.During the Domitianus period (81-96 A.D.) the cities of Smyrna, Ephesos, Pergamon and Sardeis had close relations.Nevertheless because of this cruel emperor, they all suffered.For example Domitianus had abandoned viniculture in 92 A.D. and even destroyed half of the vineyards because of difficulties in supplying cereals to the army of the City of Rome.

This attitude was criticised by Apollonius of Tyana in his speeches and the city wanted the sophist Skopelianus to be the ambassador and to relay the complaints of the Ionian city. Skopelianos was born in Klazomenia and had taken rhetoric lessons from Niketus.When asked to stay in his home and teach, he said “The nightingale sings not in a cage”.

According to Philostratos, Skopelianos perceived Smyrna as a forest, believed lonia to be land of the Mousas and Smyrna the most privileged corner of this place. Skopelianos became famous in Smyrna, to the extent that many came all the way from Greece, Cappadocia, Phoenicia, Assyria and Egypt to Smyrna to listen to his lectures.Skopelianos, also worked on the problems of the city.

For example, he went to Rome on the problems of limitations of viniculture and was influential to the extent that Domitianus changed the law and Skopelianos was awarded and honoured.

Smyrna during the Domitianus period was under the rule of Rufus, a Roman bureaucrat (curator). The duty of this officer was to control the official spending of the city but this gave him rights in of the city’s life.He abused his power and acted cruelly. The Smyrnian philosopher Niketes’s struggled to persuade him to act justly were in vain and their relationship broke down.

Rufus, furious at Niketes did not or could not do anything against him but never forgot the incident.After Domitianus was killed (96 A.D.) the newly enthroned Nerva gave Rufus the command of the Gallia armies.The first thing he did was to complain about Niketes.As a consequence, Nerva ordered Niketes to go to Rufus to be judged by him. The philosopher talked so skilfully to Rufus that Rufus couldn’t hold back his tears and ended up honouring Niketes.
We know that in the years in between 98-117, in the early days of the Emperor Traianus, the aqueduct Emperor’s father to carry water was repaired, as well as the road to north from Smyrna important event that happened was the arrival of the famous orator Laodikeiain Antonius Polemon in his early youth. He attended the rhetoric classes of Skopelianos here.

Later on he went to Bithynia and became a student of Dion Khrysostomos.Polemon becoming famous at a very early age received the love and appreciation of Traianus and was given “the right to travel on land and sea without paying taxes”.

During this time, Polemon received love and support from the Smyrnians as well.Polemon became famous only during the Emperor Hadrianus’s times (117-138 A.D.) because the emperor respected thinkers, artists and sportsmen.Polemon received the appreciation of Hadrianus and they established a personal friendship.

He accompanied him during his travels to Ephesos and Smyrna in the 123rd and 124th years of Smyrna. Polemon is said to have made the Emperor admire Smyrna and wooed him away from Ephesos.But the Smyrnians weren’t backward in expressing their appreciation to the emperor.They decided to worship him as their saviour and founder and decided to build a temple on his birthday.

Thus the city of Smyrna, built two temples for the emperor thereby receiving the title “twice Nekoros” and has been known as such ever since. We know that on some Smyrnian coins, the city is named Hadrianus Smyrna, and the Olympic Games in the city are called Olympia Hadrianus. Polemon made Hadrianus provide certain privileges to the city like that of tax exemption and large money donations. The Smyrnians used this money for the construction of the temple of Hadrianus a grain market and a spectacular gymnasium.

One of the most important incidents during the Antonius Pius (138-161 A.D.) (Who succeeded the throne of Hadrianus) was that P Aelius Aristides, to whom we owe a lot of our knowledge about Smyrna, arrived in the city. So the city gained a skilled public speaker to be a spokesman for the city and to replace Polemon who died in the year 143. We also know that the Pergamonion medical student Claudius Galenus arrived in Smyrna at the same time, attended classes on anatomy and philosophy and wrote a three volume book on the chest and liver.

Smyrna enjoyed good relations with Rome during the Antonius Pius period. For example, in the year 147, a Dionysos Association in Smyrna sent a letter of congratulations to Rome on the birth of M. Aurelius’s son and received a reply from M. Aurelius although the child had died a day later (A copy of this letter on stone can be found in İzmir). And as we learn from the few bits of this inscription, Emperor Antonius Pius had also written a letter to this Association and had most probably written words of appreciation.

The second earthquake that Smyrna was effected by took place during the era of Emperor Pius. Aristides, giving detailed information on the earthquake was in his villa outside the city during the earthquake.During the earthquake, many cities in western Anatolia were destroyed. People in a state of panic lived in temples and open areas for a long time afterwards.Smyrnians went to the Apollon Temple at Klaros and appealed for the ideas of sooth-sayers and accordingly sacrificed an ox in the name of Smyrna.

After the death of Antonius Pius (161 A.D.) M. Aurelius and his step brother L.A. Verus were enthroned.We have the introduction of a letter of thanks to the Dionysos Association which shows us that this association sent a letter of congratulations to the emperors.During this time there arose another reason for Rome’s support of Smyrna:The young partner of the throne, Verus, when he was on his way to command a war against the Parth in the years 161-166 A.D. had met a beautiful Smyrnian woman called Pantheia when he was in the city of Antiokheia of Syria.

This woman influenced Verus and became the theme of Lucianus’s poem. An earthquake that took place in the year 178 destroyed the city even more severely than the two wars that had occurred, to the extent of ruining half of the city. Along with all the other temples the big temple built for Tiberius was destroyed.

As was the tradition among Greek cities, all neighbouring cities, even those on the other shore of the Aegean Sea sent money and provisions. Aristides who wasn’t there during the earthquake wrote a letter of masterpiece to Rome which said that “the Zephyr winds blew over a desert” and if they helped the city, they would have the honour of rebuilding this city.Emperor Marcus Aurelius was impressed by the letter to the extent of taking over the responsibility for the restoration of the city and applied to the Senate asking for financial aid and a ten year tax exemption. The Senate approved this and agreed to provide every kind of help to Smyrna.

This even included sending workers to re-build the city. The emperor sent an officer to regulate and control the reconstruction of the city. In the end, the city regained its former beauty with the aid of the Romans in two to three years. According to scientists, Smyrna extended citizenship of the city to Aristides for his services in restoring the city and erected a statue of him in the Agora.

Commodus replacing Marcus Aurelius on the throne after his death in 180 visited Smyrna. Aristides, prepared a speech for this occasion but didn’t or couldn’t read it. In the script available to us today, he mentioned the visit of Commodus to the city, the history and the beauty of the city, the earthquake the city had experienced and the aid of the Empire. Again, as we can understand from Smyrnians coins printed in Commodus times, Smyrna had peace treaties with Nikomedeia (İzmit), Kyzikos (Erdek), Athens and Sparta.

After Commodus was killed in the year 192, the Roman Empire was taken over by Septimius and his sons, Caracalla and Gette. It is possible to see illustrations of the three rulers and the wife of Severus: Julia on many coins issued in this era. On some of these coins there was an illustration of the commander; the famous sophist Cladius Rufirus. This man was the teacher of the Phokeiai thinker Hermokrates. At this time, another famous sophist, Lykian Herakleides, is known to have returned from Athens to Smyrna. Herakleides bought a farm outside the city and called it Rhetorike (the land of Rhetoric).
As we understand from a milestone found in Bornova/Hacılarkırı, the road from Smyrna to Sardis was repaired during the time Severus and his sons were in power. On the same milestone, dated 209, it says of the city “most spectacular”, “the first of Asia” and “the city built two temples for emperors”. After the death of Severus in the year 211, Caracalla and Gette ruled the Empire. There are busts of these rulers on a coin minted in that year. In the same year Caracalla donated land next to the Nemesis temple to the philosopher Papirus and he sacrified it to the Nemesises. In 212 A.D., Caracalla had his brother killed and ruled alone. This was a period of political suppression and suspicion.

Emperors were changed frequently. The first thing Caracalla did was to give Roman citizenship to any free individual living within the borders of the Empire. This could have served either to increase the amount of tax collected or to secure his own position. But this was a harbinger of the rapid decline of the Empire from this time onwards.

Caracalla in 214-215 A.D. visited Nikomedeia (İzmit), Pergamon and Smyrna gave then authority to erect a temple in Smyrna and Pergamon. As a result, a new temple was built in Smyrna and was opened to worship Rome and Caracalla. The city had been honoured as the “third time Neokoros”. Expressions used for the city at this time are “the metropolis of Asia”, “Third time Neokoros voted by the great Roman Senate”, “The ornament of lonia”.
Macrinus replaced Caracalla on the throne, after he was killed in 217 A.D.. The new emperor entrusted the Nikaiain historian Cassius Dio Cocceianus with the ruling of Smyrna and Pergamon.
However Macrinus was defeated and killed by Elagabalus. Elagabalus’s four year rule was one of decay. On two of the three Smyrna coins belonging to this period, the name of the commander printed on the coins is that of the sophist Rufinus. From the same period (220-25 A.D.), the following anecdote is related about the famous Smyrnian sophist Megistias: After the death of Herakleides, the famous orator Hippodromos who came to the city to give rhetoric classes in the Ionian style, went to one of Megistias’s classes given in a temple near the Agora and at the end of the lesson, without introducing himself delivered a brilliant speech. A crowd of Smyrnians interested in the speech gathered around. Hippodromos delivered another speech on the same subject greatly impressing his audience. From then on, he was the second famous orator of Smyrna.

When Elagabalos was murdered in 222 A.D. Severus Alexander was enthroned. During the 13 years of his uninterrupted rule, he was dominated by his mother lulia Mamaca. Nothing extraordinary occurred between the Romans and Smyrna during this period. Coins belonging to this period typically had many illustrations of both the emperor and his mother as well as the known titles of the city (”third time Neokoros”, “first of Asia”).
Chaos ensued when Severus was killed by his own soldiers. This chaos lasted until Maximinus became emperor but real peace was only established on his death in 238 after Gordianus was enthroned.

A large number of coins belonging to this period give us an idea of the close relations of Smyrna and Thyateira (Akhisar), Tralleis (Aydın), Philadelphia (Alaşehir) and Hierapolis (Pamukkale). Again at the same period, Lollianus was made the governor of the Asian state and he successfully governed the State for eight years. On the base of a statue found at Smyrna the words below were written about Lollianus:”Congratulations to the head priest of the Asian State L.P. Gessius, the successful govemor of Asia for 3 years. The director of the first festival honours L.E.V. Lollianus with this statue. “It is possible to judge his success by looking at some milestones discovered in Smyrna mentioning the roads he constructed and repaired. Lollianus continued to govem Asia after Gordianus’s death in 244 and in the period of Philippus.
Coins belonging to the Philippus period (244-247) bear illustrations of the emperor, his wife Otacilia and their son Philippus who was enthroned in 248. The peace treaties that were signed with Khios, Pergamon, Hierapolis, Thyateira and Laodekeia (Denizli) were also commemorated on those coins.
In the four year period after the death of Philippus (249 A.D.)

The Roman Empire was governed by the emperors Decius, Hostilianus, Gallus and Volusianus, each for short periods. We do not-come across the name of Smyrna among events of this period. An inscription from the period of Valerius and his son Gallienus’s joint rule (253-260 A.D.) shows us how much the two emperors respected the autonomy of these cities.

A roman senator, Apellas, who belonged to one of the respected families of Pergamon and owned a farm in the neighbourhood of Smyrna was charged a fine in a case regarding his property in Smyrna by the Smyrnian bureaucrats. Apellas subsequently complained about this matter to the emperor. However Valerianus and Gallienus in their reply to Apellas, who was also their personal friend, stated that senators, too, have obligations to the local rulers and that they can also be charged fines.

The Valerianus-Gordianus period was one of terror for the Roman Empire. The Goths who had threatened the country for a long time, had now come up to West Anatolia, conquering some Aegean islands and even destroying the Artemis Temple in Ephesos. In addition to this the Persians had conquered Antiokheia and had first taken Valerianus prisoner and then killed him. It was not possible for Smyrna to remain unaffected by these events, but we have no evidence from this period in Smyrna.

We see that Claudius II, who was emperor after Gordianus, forced the Goths to withdraw from Aegean Region. Aurelianus who followed him and was sovereign until the year 275 A.D. was a good soldier and a reformist ruler.

In fact the country was saved from the threats coming from the East in his time.Our only source of knowledge about this period in Smyrna is a milestone found on the road from Smyrna to Sardeis which records the names of Aurelianus and his wife. As a matter of fact the nine years in the history of Smyrna until Diocletianus was sovereign in 284 are completely dark for us.

It is known that Dioletianus had shown great efforts to strengthen the empire and prevent constant attack. Therefore he first settled himself in Nikomedeia (İzmit) and left the west part of the empire to Maximianus. First the internal threats and then the external threats were eliminated and the borders made safe. In 293 A.D. these two emperors appointed two assistants who were to take over the empire in the future. Of these two, Constantius was commissioned to rule the far west of the country and Galerius, the Middle East.

In the same period the structure of the States was changed.They were made smaller and military authority taken was from the governors. In these reforms, the Asian State was divided to seven parts and Smyrna remained in the part which was again named Asia and which contained some cities by the sea. Taxes were increased and prices fixed for the first time by the State.

As a result of the new regime, the growing poverty of the previous two centuries intensified and a general discontent arose. Milestones dating to 293- 305 found in Smyrna and its neighbouring area (Tepecik, Bornova, Pınarbaşı, Hacılarkırı, Turgutlu, Menemen, Torbalı) show us that in the time of Diocletianus and Maximianus great importance at least in the neighbourhood of Smyrna was attached to road construction and repair.

Ancient Remains in the Neighbourhood of Smyrna Thermal Springs of Agamemnon
The thermal spring containing sulphur, 10 km west of İzmir, was known even in very early times. According to legend Greeks, coming to Anatolia under the leadership of Agamemnon had lost another war with a tribe near Pergamon after the fall of Troy, tried to discover how their losses could be recovered by oracle. When the soothsayer told them that they should recuperate in the thermal springs near Smyrna, they travelled to these springs. Although far from historical fact, this story shows us that the Agamemnon thermal springs were known in quite early periods and that many people came here to recuperate. Aristides writes that he often went to these springs and that Asklepios first started to restore to health here.

Karabel Hittite Monument

In the Karabel Pass on the Kemalpaşa-Torbalı road, in a spot where an arch stands on a rock on the southem slope of a mountain on the left side of the road, stands a large Hittite relief. A soldier is depicted standing with a bow in his right hand and a shield in his left wearing a tunic and a cone-shaped hat. Between the head of the soldier and the shield there are badly wom hierographic inscriptions barely visible to the human eye. This figure may symbolise a war god.

Researchers commenting on the Karabel monument draw attention to Herodotos’ words from the XIXth century B.C. Egyptian king Sesostris:
“… There are two figures of this man on some rocks in Ionia. One of them is on the Ephesos- Phokaia road and the other is on Sardis-Smyrna road. In both places, the figure has a shield in his right hand and a bow in his left. On the hieroglyph inscription between his shoulders it says ‘I have won this country with my own shoulders”.

In fact, another monument was found in the same region, almost exactly like the Karabel monument and again on a rock. Therefore the Karabel monument well protected today, is in a position some kilometres a way from the Sardis-Smyrna road, though there are some mistakes in the description of the figure and the information it gives about Sesostris not in accordance with historical knowledge it can reasonably be thought of as being one of the two figures mentioned by Herodotos. It is known that Herodotos had not personally seen most of the places he speaks about in his work, but that he acquired his knowledge more from what he had listened to.

Pergamon, Sardis, Klazomenai, Phokaia, Ephesos, Kolophon and Notion, Klaros
Pergamon

The most important ancient settlement in Smyrna’s neighbouring area is Pergamon (Bergama) founded by Philetairos at the beginning of 3rd century B.C.. Ruled continuously by the Attalos dynasty, from the middle of that century on, Pergamon existed as the largest and the strongest of West Anatolian kingdoms through out Hellenistic era. However after the death of the last king Attalos III and suppression Aristonikos revolt which is followed, it has become the Asian State of the Romans. Pergamon, particularly in the 2nd century B.C. became the most important cultural and artistic centre of the entire Hellenistic area. It is known that a library established at that time had 200,000 books and parchment, for centuries used as writing material was first used here. The Zeus Altar which has some relief’s that symbolise the war between the Gods (Pergamonians) and the Giants (Galatians) is also among the remains of the same period.

Sardis

Sardis (Salihli/Sart) which was known as the capital of Lydia Kingdom was founded in 8th century B.C. and was ruled by the kings: Gyges, Ardys, Sadyattes, Alyattes and Kroisos. The city was conquered by the Persian King Kyros in 546 B.C. and from then continued to function as a Persian garrison. Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 B.C. and at that time the city became Hellenized. The city was then ruled by Syria, Pergamon and by the Romans in turn.

Sardis was known by its wealth and as a famous trade centre when it was the capital of Lydia Kingdom. Owing to the Paktolos which passed nearby the city and which had rich gold mines the wealth of the city was very famous. This city which minted the first coins in history in 7th century B.C., was the last stop on the famous King Road which started in Susa. Moreover, the city earned a considerable income from the famous Artemis temple which people from all over the ancient world visited.

Klazomenai

Klazomenai, which is known as the motherland of the famous thinker Anaksagoras and is one of the 12 cities of the fonia Confederation, cannot be dated. However it is true that, the city which is said to have been established by the Kolophons in the spot of today’s Iskele, had moved to the island nearby (Karantina Island) at the time of the lonian Revolt to escape from the Persian threat. According to the historians Plinius and Pausanias, afterwards Alexander the Great built a road connecting this island to the land. An independent city during the Roman period Klazomenai was known as an important trade centre.

Phokaia

The first natives of Ancient Phokaia settling in the place of today’s Old Foça are known as the immigrants who came from Phokis environs in Greece. Phokaia which had two ports had grown in a short time and became one of the most important port cities of ancient periods. The city lost strength during the Persian rule in West Anatolia and could only join the lonian Revolt in 500-494 B.C. with three ships. Afterwards the city maintained it’s free status, however the damage that the Persians caused was so great that Phokaia never regained its original magnificence.

Ephesos

Ephesos, which was one of the twelve fond cities, developed as a result of the union of the lon immigrants with the natives living near the temple of Kybele. Afterwards, the spectacular temple built for this goddess who then took the name of the Greek Goddess Artemis, would be famous as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Like the other lonian cities, Ephesos was ruled by Lydia, Persia, Macedonia and lastly by Roman rulers. This city was one of the most popular cities of the ancient world and was given special attention by many Hellenistic kings. For instance it is known that Lysimakhos built this city and gave it his wife, Arsinoe’s name, and that the king of Pergamon Attalos II, enlarged the port. Because the Romans made Ephesos the capital of the Asian State, the city became one of the biggest settlements in Anatolia. The city was an important centre for Christianity at this time.

Owing to its wonderful position and associated ports, Ephesos became Anatolia’s biggest trade centre. The Celsus library, the theatre, stadium, gymnasium, the temples and the famous baths are responsible for this city becoming, sports, religious, cultural and entertainment centre especially in Roman times.

Kolophon and Notion

Kolophon (Değirmendere) is one of the twelve fond cities. Although it had a strong navy and cavalry force, it has suffered many wars and has been ruled by forces of Lydia, Persia and Macedonia even at times by sea pirates. When Kolophon was destroyed by Lysimakhos in 302 B.C. its neighbouring city, Notion (Ahmetbeyli) gained importance. This city which claimed Homer’s citizenship was also famous with its Klaros Temple and the oracle centre.

Klaros

Situated in the Kolophon territory in between the cities Kolophon and Notion was the city of Klaros. It was the centre of the Apollon Klarios cult. There was also a huge temple in the city which was an oracle centre especially during the Hellenistic period. Visitors from all corners of the world, kings, city representatives and ordinary citizens came to consult the God Apollon’s Oracle. The temple was plundered at times by pirates but had vast financial revenues during the Roman Times.